One Response to “Invasive Species”

1.   Mr. Tokarz Says:
     February 11th, 2010 at 8:54 am

   This blog is very professional and informative, and it is easy to see that the students took pride in their research and documentation. Each topic is very interesting, and something we can all relate to. I look forward to reading each of the articles in the blog over Winter Break.

    

   Mr. T

    

   

Lauren K. P9 2/1/10 

Malaria is responsible for nearly 2.7 million deaths a year In order to lower this death toll, scientists have been focused on creating more accessible and affordable anti malaria drugs for people across the world.

Malaria is a potentially fatal blood disease that is caused by a parasite transmitted to humans and animals by mosquitoes. The danger not only lies in the fact that the parasite (Plasmodium falciparum) digests the hemoglobin in red blood cells but also that it alters the adhesive properties of the cell. These changes cause the cells to stick to the walls of the blood vessels, and are particularly dangerous when they stick to capillaries that go to the brain (Berkeley Lab, 2001). Though many cases of malaria occur in sub-Sahara Africa, malaria has become a public health problem in more than 109 countries in the world. However, Malaria is most devastating in third-world countries like Africa where it can cost about $12 billion in lost productivity (Walsh, 2009). This is because the treatment for Malaria is very expensive because artemisinic acid, which comes from amorphadiene, is found in wormwood where the A. annua naturally produces it at a slow rate. Though the use artemisinic acid is highly effective in anti malarial drugs, however, the cost and inconvenience of it makes it a very impractical treatment. Through genetic engineering, new methods have been found to produce artemisinic acid. One is through engineered yeast and the other is through optimized pathways and conditions of synthetic E.coli.

Through the process using engineered yeast, the production of artemisinic acid is increased both in yield and efficiency. This is done by using yeast (Saccharomyces) who’s DNA has been altered so that farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) biosynthetic pathways are enhanced. Enhancement of FPP is one of three steps that are crucial to the production of artemisinic acid because it prevents artemisinic acid from being used in sterols such as estrogen and testosterone and makes the yeasts primary goal to produce artemisinic acid. High levels of FPP are necessary for step two. In step two, the gene amorphadiene synthase is introduced into yeast with high levels of FPP to create amorphadiene. In the last step the amorphadiene is put through a three step oxidation process to create artemisinic acid. As a result, about 75mg of 95% pure artemisinic acid is produced, which is about 2 times more acid than A.annua can produce. In comparison, this engineered artemisinic acid is just as effective as the acid made from A. annua in anti malaria drugs however this acid can be produced in 2-5 days instead of the months it takes for the A. annua to produce the acid (Anthony,2009).

The other method with the optimized pathways and conditions of E.coli creates a different approach to the problem. One difference is that instead of the goal being to create large amounts of artemisinic acid, the goal is to create large amounts of amorphadiene. In the first method, engineered yeast was made to create a new and better way of producing artemisinic acid by surpassing the slow process of A. annua. However in the E.Coli method, the biosynthetic pathways of A. annua aren’t being changed, but enhanced. This is achieved by manipulating the DNA of synthetic E.coli to create enzymes that catalyze the reactions to make amorphadiene. There are three main manipulations that need to be made to get the best yield of amorphadiene. One is manipulating the DNA so that the making of enzymes is more efficient. The second is changing the DNA promoters, which control how many enzymes are made. And the third is altering the operons so that certain genes are made together so they are regulated together. By pin pointing these key manipulations, one can increase or decrease any manipulation in order to get the right conditions for the desired enzyme. In this case, the right conditions for making amorphadiene yields 300mL/L which is about “seven fold” more than A. annua can make naturally (Ro, 2006).

In conclusion, both these methods are vital to the treatment of Malaria. Both produce greater quantities of artemisinic acid and amorphadiene than the natural source and do it at a faster rate. This will allow more anti malaria drugs to be mass produced and at a cheaper price. This will make them more accessible and affordable to the people that need them; particularly in Africa.  With these findings more lives will be saved and improved. Not just the lives affected by malaria but also countless other infected lives. These concepts found with engineered yeast and E.coli can be applied to many different cures and treatments. It will revolutionize the way health care departments produce their drugs.

Bibliography:

Anthony, J R, and Et al. “Optimization of the mevalonate-based isoprenoid
     biosynthetic pathway in Escherichia coli for production of the
     anti-malarial drug precursor amorpha-4,11-diene.” Metabolic Engineering
     11.1 (2009): 13-19. PDF file.

Ro, D K, and Et al. “Production of the antimalarial drug precursor artemisinic
     acid in engineered yeast.” Nature 440.7086 (2006): 940-943. PDF file.

Walsh, Shaun, dir. “Malaria.” NetsForLife. Episcopal Relief & Development, 2009.
     Web. 18 Jan. 2010. http://www.netsforlifeafrica.org.

“What is Malaria?” Berkeley Lab. Lawrence Berkeley National Library, 10 Aug.
     2001. Web. 18 Jan. 2010. <http://www.lbl.gov>.

Jenna G. P 7  2/1/10

 It’s a problem that 21% of the population can describe in painful detail.  Migraines are pulsating headaches that that can occur multiple times a year, month, or week and typically last from a few hours to as much as a few days.  There are many possible causes of these headaches, ranging from hereditary reasons to dietary reasons to environmental changes.  Many different forms of treatment have been explored, including prescription strength medication and acupuncture to discover what treatment would be most effective to treat these debilitating headaches.

 Many different causes of migraines have been found, and, surprisingly enough, just being a certain gender determines your risk for being stricken with them.  Migraines affect 15% of women and 6% of men in the general population. (Plank, 2009).  The majority of migraine sufferers are women, which is most likely because of the changes a woman’s hormone levels go through.  The more drastic and fast a hormone level fluctuation is, the more likely a person is to develop a migraine.  One’s occupation can also easily affect whether or not they have these headaches.  In active duty soldiers, migraines are present in 52.3% of them (17.4% of these being men, and the other 34.9% being women). This is because of the extreme stress they put on their bodies, both physically and mentally. These are reasons that can apply to those people outside of the military occupation as well, but are drastically increased in those individuals who serve because of their daily schedules.  Vigorous physical activity is often seen as an underlying cause for migraines, since it puts a great amount of physical stress on a person’s body.  Another possible cause is what foods a person eats.  Some severe allergic reactions to foods trigger migraine attacks in the body.  It was found that one woman who suffered from migraines had a severe allergy to casein, milk and egg white.  When the foods were removed from her diet, the headaches stopped, but when she started to consume the foods again, her migraines returned. (Nelson-Dooley, 2009).  Though it cannot be proved exactly why, warmer weather and changes in the atmospheric pressure have led to severe headaches and migraines.  A person’s risk of developing a migraine increases by 7.5% for every nine degrees Fahrenheit.  (Anonymous, 2009).  Warmer temperature leads to a decrease in blood pressure, which changes the rate of the blood flow around the brain.  It suggests that there is a connection between blood flow and migraines.  In the same study, other factors were observed also, such as barometric pressure, humidity, fine particulate matter, black carbon, and sulfur dioxides.  It was found that air pollution also showed signs of triggering migraines, though there was no hardcore evidence as of yet to directly mark it as a cause of headaches.  Though heredity has been linked to migraines in the past, it is important to remember that a person’s lifestyle is the underlying cause of migraines.  To reduce the risk of developing migraines, a person should be sure to eat healthy, sleep well and stress less.

 There is no remedy to cure a migraine; in fact, there is no indefinite cure for these headaches, just temporary treatments, many of which have been explored my numerous doctors in the medical field.  The traditional treatment for migraines, which most Americans follow, is simply taking aspirin repeatedly throughout the day to dull the pain of the headache until it dissipates.  But this has proven to not be very helpful, and those diagnosed with migraines realize that they must explore more drastic methods of treatment.  Many of these treatment options include stronger, more potent drugs.  Like a doctor would prescribe medication for high blood pressure, a patient diagnosed with migraines would be prescribed a drug in the same matter.  The Food and Drug Administration approved a drug with a combination of sumatriptan and naproxen that has been proved to decrease the recurrence of migraines.  Another drug called botulinum toxin type A is effective by successfully reducing the number of days a headache lasts in those patients with chronic migraines. (Cady, 2009).  With any of these drugs, it’s important to consume them at the onset of a migraine when it is still mild.  This will give the drug a head start and cut the headache short before it gets any worse.  Medications such as beta blockers and calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants and certain antiepileptic medications are effective in preventing migraines from occurring. (Guirguis-Blake, 2010).  But there are also new, innovative treatments being explored, such as acupuncture.  Acupuncture is a Chinese therapy practice, where specific types of needles called filiform needles are manipulated and inserted into different points of a person’s body, usually to relieve pain. When these needles are used in a combination of certain points, they relieve migraine pain. (Plank, 2009).  Frequently used points for relieving migraine pain are located on mainly four locations.  One is at the webbed section between the thumb and pointer finger, one on the wrist, and two points on the feet.  The first point on the foot is on the webbed part between the first and second toe, and the second point located between the fourth and fifth toes.  This routine is not considered dangerous since the particular acupuncture points carry an extremely low risk of hitting any vital organs.  Typically, improvements were shown around twelve weeks after the acupuncture intervention.  Patients reported less migraines and a decrease in pain along with them. Though some people may prefer traditional methods to treat headaches like medicine, more innovative treatments like acupuncture have shown evidence of working.

             There could be a one-thousand page book on the various causes and treatments of migraines, but there is generally a trend found among migraine sufferers.  Based on what studies have shown, if a person wants to avoid migraines, they should follow the healthiest lifestyle possible.  They should eat nutritionally, avoid excessive drinking and smoking.  They should have consistent sleep schedules and not put too much physical strain on their bodies.  They might even want to consider a therapist to help relieve psychological stress.  But if despite these efforts someone is stricken with migraines, they should turn a doctor.  They can prescribe you with a medication that will most accurately treat those specific headaches.  Medications have proven to be the most reliable and widely known best treatment for migraines.  

Works Cited

Cady, Roger K. “The Future of Migraine: Beyond Just Another Pill.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 84.5 (2009): 397-400. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

Guirguis-Blake, Janelle. “Effectiveness of Acupuncture for Migraine Prophylaxis.” American Family Physician 81.1 (2010): 29-31. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

“MIGRAINE RISK INCREASES WITH TEMPERATURE RISE.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 90.5 (2009): 590-92. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

Nelson-Dooley, Cass, Stephanie Kaplan, and J Alexander Bralley. “MIGRAINES AND MOOD DISORDERS: NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY INTERVENTION BASED ON LABORATORY TESTING.” Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 15.5 (2009): 56-61. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

Plank, Sharon, and Janet Goodard. “Effectiveness of Acupuncture for Chronic Daily Headache: An Outcomes Study .” Military Medicine 174.12 (2009): 1276-82. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 23 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

Ben V  P9 1/28/10  

The concept of negative behavior has been around since the colonial period. Analysis of several similar fMRI and PET scan experiments shed light on the neurology behind humanity’s tendencies to succumb to negative behaviors. 

When looking to the brain for the answers, one must focus on the results of an fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) scan. These scans are able to show which part of the brain “lights up” under certain circumstances, showing which brain region is active during different thought processes. fMRIs work by measuring the rate of blood flow and metabolism in the brain. This process can be difficult to analyze, as all parts of the brain are constantly being worked. In order to prevent confusion, the resting brain’s average blood flow and metabolism is measured before experimentation occurs (Richards, 2009). 

fMRI and PET scan analysis shows that there are three major brain regions that come into play when considering bad intentions such as the seven deadly sins of lust, gluttony, sloth, pride, greed, envy, and wrath. This bad behavior, however, is not limited to these mentioned sins. Negative behavior can range from anything to calling someone names to committing violent crimes. These regions consist of the ventral striatum, the dorsal anterior cingulated cortex (dACC), and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). 

For many poor lifestyle choices, including habits, addictions, and risk-taking behaviors, the key brain region is the ventral striatum, also known as the reward system. This system revolves around the neurotransmitter dopamine, which gives people the sense of emotional pain, pleasure, reward, and punishment. Interestingly, there is a strong pattern among people with high-risk behaviors and people who are likely to become addicted to drugs. Through fMRI scanning, studies show that such people suffer their vices because of a neurotransmitter that intakes dopamine less sensitively than the average person. This means that a person is less sensitive to things that would make the average person happy. While the average person may get high dopamine levels from a small amount of drug use, an addict who intakes dopamine less sensitively will need much larger amounts of the drug to get the same dopamine high. The dopamine reaches the brain far less sensitively, and therefore the addict needs a much higher dosage of drug in order to receive the same feeling that a first time user would have. When such addictions occur, a drug addict goes through the system of compulsion, loss of control, and finally negative emotional state, such as dysphoria, anxiety, or irritability (Koob, 2009). 

A similar process occurs to a person with high-risk behavior tendencies. While the average person may get high dopamine levels from riding a roller coaster, a person who intakes dopamine less sensitively may feel equal amount of pleasure from something more extreme, such as skydiving. This risk-taking behavior is also affected by the conflict detector, not being able to properly analyze the proper way to handle a conflict (Association of Psychological Science, 2009). 

This conflict detector region of the brain is known as the dorsal anterior cingulated cortex (dACC). When the brain is given contradictory information, the part of the brain that helps to make a decision is the conflict detector. This conflict detector often plays a role in moral choices. When a person is faced with the option to either turn the other cheek or lash out at a person (wrath), the conflict detector is able to analyze the possible outcomes of both scenarios, and make the right decision. However, the conflict detector in some people may have much stronger tendencies to lash out than to turn the other cheek, or vice versa, causing many people to have shorter tempers than others (McGowan, 2009). 

Finally, another key region in the brain is the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). This region is what shapes a person’s self awareness. Envy, pride, and greed all are affected by this area of the brain. The prefrontal cortex takes in the criticism of others and forms it into jealousy, making people strive to be better than their neighbor, and giving people joy when they see someone else fail. 

All of these regions play an enormous role in the behavior of a person. The analysis of fMRI and PET scans has made a significant advance in neurological behavior studies. When learning the affect of these regions on the way that a person acts, one can begin to understand what roles shape a person’s moral character. This advancement could potentially lead to further experimentation on what effects each region of the brain, building better moral character throughout humanity. 

Works Cited 

“Association for Psychological Science; Born to be wild? Thrill-seeking behavior may be based in the brain.” NewsRx Health (Mar. 2009): n. pag. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://proquest.umi.com.

Koob, George F. “THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF ADDICTION: WHERE WE HAVE BEEN AND WHERE WE ARE GOING.” Journal of Drug Issues 39.3 (2009): 759. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://proquest.umi.com.

McGowan, Kathleen. “Seven Deadly Sins.” Discover Magazine (Sept. 2009): 49-52. Print. This is the orinal document found. It shows the general information as to which brain regions function in different sins. 

Richards, Robert J. “Bad Seeds.” American Scientist 96.2 (2009): 164. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://proquest.umi.com

Jon S. P9  1/28/10

Stem Cell research is a branch of science dedicated to extracting living cells designed to recreate tissue in patients. Stem Cell Transplants should be pursued as the preferred medical treatment in place of contemporary therapies based on the supporting evidence found in the results of current clinical testing. 

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells. These cells are most potent and most versatile in the embryonic stage of life. This means that when a fetus is maturing in the womb, the embryonic stem cell is capable of making anything the growing body needs; this could include muscle, blood, bone and skin for any appendage. While some scientists promote the use of embryonic stem cells, the embryo is not the only place to find stem cells. Adults still have stem cells, but they are specialized to one function, Hematopoietic Stem Cells being only one example. Blood forming Stem Cells, also known as Hematopoietic Stem Cells, are found in human blood and bone marrow. 

Applications of stem cell therapy have been shown to reduce the effects of diseases and maintain low remission rates. Such treatments are not only shown to be effective but perform the treatment less harmfully than others. High radiation doses used in Chemotherapy and treatments that are regarded as being immunosuppressive can be avoided by promoting Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (Burt, 08). Stem cell therapy should be given to patients suffering from autoimmune diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Heart Disease, Diabetes and some forms of cancer. 

These adult stem cells can be safely extracted from an adult through donation and used in the same manner as any blood transfusion. This process is safe, and is nonmyeloablative, meaning it does not damage the bone marrow in the recipient. In contrast, treatments like chemotherapy which require high doses of radiation, is myeloablative since it reduces bone marrow cell count (Harrington, 08). In a clinical test, the mortality rate of the patients undergoing nonmyeloablative treatment was 3/197, 1.5%, whereas the chemo treatment plan led to a mortality rate of 13% (13/100) (Burt, 06). HSCT treatment for autoimmune diseases has been shown to have an equivalent 5 year remission rate to myeloablative treatments of 50%-55%. However, HSCT prevents vulnerability to diseases like MDS/leukemia and lower mortality rate (Burt, 06). These results translate well to treatment of cardiac diseases by improving nonhematopoietic organ function indirectly. The progenitor PBSC blood cells provide a local ‘cell-help-cell’ effect. This allows for a reprogramming of the existing HSC’s in a patients body; thus helping it to stop the metastasizing heart disease (Burt, 06). HSCT is typically a last resort treatment, and this is due generally to the inexperience of the field. However, patients suffering from diseases like Lupus Erythematos, HSCT was the only treatment that their body responded to, with outcomes of survival and disease remission. (Burt, 08). 

As a scientific community, we are on the doorstep of stem cell research and the potential for great progress is huge. In just one decade, clinical trials have been shown to be, at times, more effective than established treatments for autoimmune diseases. The research and hypotheses are currently being tested regularly on the clinical level and kept unavailable to the public. Cancer, Heart Disease and Alzheimer’s are commonplace now, but with further development in the field of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation a solution is possible.

Sources: 

Burt, Richard K.  “Nonmyeloablative Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus”.  Journal of the American Medical Association. Feb 2006. Web. 1/20/10 http://jama.ama-assn.org

Burt Richard K. “Clinical Applications of Blood-Derived and Marrow-Derived Stem Cells for Nonmalignant Diseases” Journal of the American Medical Association. Feb 2008. Web. 1/20/10. http://jama.ama-assn.org

Harrington, Sarah Elizabeth. “The Role of Chemotherapy at the End of Life: When is Enough, Enough?”.Journal of the American Medical Association. Jun 2008. Web. 1/23/10.  http://jama.ama-assn.org

Sabrina S. P 9 1/28/10

Breast carcinoma is very common among many women who have had alterations in their BRCA genes.  These genes are hereditary and the mutations are linked to breast cancer as well as ovarian cancer. Tamoxifen therapy can treat breast carcinoma effectively; however the side effects can lead to other cancers or tumors in the uterus. Tamoxifen therapy should not be used to treat breast cancer for patients who have BRCA mutations.

Women who have received the Tamoxifen therapy can expect to have pathologic changes of the mucous membrane that lines their uterus (Christie, 2008).  The Tamoxifen therapy uses a strong influence of estrogen to treat the patient. This can cause damage on the uterus which can create endometrial sarcoma. In the cases that have been studied, some women have experienced changes in their uterus after receiving the tamoxifen therapy. This therapy drug is very beneficial when treating breast carcinoma; however forty percent of women have had harmful side effects.  The majority of this percentage have had BRCA mutations. These breast cancer patients can expect to have pathological changes in the mucous membrane that lines the uterus, which is known as the endometrium.  These changes are caused by the excessive use of estrogen during the Tamoxifen therapy (Christie, 2008). Changes in the endometrium can result in invasive tumors in the uterus. Although these sarcomas are rare, five percent of women who have had Tamoxifen therapy can obtain these malignant tumors. 

The most harmful side effects are the three types of endometrial sarcoma. The first type is endometrial sarcoma nodule which is small tumor lumps.  The other types are low or high grade endometrial stromal sarcoma or ESS. ESS is a form of cancer in which small tumors line the mucous membrane of the uterus. These side effects are common for women who have alterations in their BRCA 1 or 2 genes. Women who have had ovarian or breast cancer are strongly recommended to undergo genetic testing for the BRCA mutations (Kleer, 2009).

BRCA 1 and 2 are known as the cancer susceptibility genes (Pistoi, 2001).  BRCA 1 is a protein that protects the DNA from being hurt by chemicals and radiation. This gene fixes the problems along the genome. With a gene alteration, it is more likely for the body to develop a cancerous mutation. It is also more likely to also receive terrible side effects like ESS after getting Tamoxifen treatment if there is a BRCA mutation.

Because of the BRCA mutations, it is evident that chemotherapy treatment for breast carcinoma is sometimes not the best solution for some patients.  If the patient has medullary carcinoma, where the tumor is in the inner core of certain organs, it will be harder to diagnose those patients. This is because scientists must do more research in order to truly understand and study the tissue features of the entire tumor in order to know the best treatment for the patient. Most doctors have determined if the patient has pure medullary carcinoma no chemotherapy should be used. If the medullary carcinoma is not pure then it is ok to use chemotherapy (Kleer, 2009).  By researching the patients BRCA genes, scientists can also determine if Tamoxifen therapy is the most effective and logical treatment.

The Tamoxifen therapy is a very beneficial treatment for breast cancer, however for some patients the side effects are not worth this type of treatment because it can cause another form of cancer. Depending on the BRCA mutations, scientists can determine if the Tamoxifen therapy is the right treatment.  However, it is important more research is done in order to clearly determine and understand possible alternative treatments for breast cancer patients who have BRCA mutations.

Citations: 

Christie, Benjamin, et al. “Endometrial Stromal Sarcoma Development after
     Hysterectomy and Tamoxifen Therapy.” American Surgeon 74.8 (2008): 726-729.
     ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 26 Dec. 2009.
     http://proquest.umi.com

 Kleer, Celina G. “Carcinoma of the Breast With Medullary-like Features:
     Diagnostic Challenges and Relationship with BRCA1 and EZH2 Functions.”
     Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine 133.11 (2009): 1822-1826.
     ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 26 Dec. 2009.
     http://proquest.umi.com. 

Pistoi, Sergio. “Breast Cancer: Knocking Out A Killer.” Scientific American 11
     June 2001: n. pag. Print.

Dani K P9 1/28/10

Seasonal allergies, otherwise known as allergic rhinitis, can impair the quality of life of many people throughout the world. We suffer from these allergies all the time, with over half of the people living in the United States being allergic to at least one allergen. Allergic rhinitis is characterized by sneezing, itching and nasal congestion. Learning about why we react the way we do to allergens in the air can be vital to understanding allergic rhinitis. Symptoms pertaining to the eyes often are present with these symptoms, and are known as allergic conjunctivitis. These symptoms are itchy eyes, redness and excess tears in the eyes.

Allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis are essentially allergic reactions to allergens that enter the body through the airways, the skin, the gastrointestinal tract, and the circulatory system. These allergens contain proteins, which is what the body responds to and attempts to fight off. When these allergens enter the body, the immune system recognizes them using a form of antibody, Immunoglobulin E. People that have allergies have higher levels of these IgE cells, and they attach to the mast cells when allergens are detected. Once the IgE cells bind with the mast cells, mast cells become primed and ready to release chemicals like histamines, which spread and result in symptoms recognized in common allergic reactions, as well as severe ones that result in anaphylaxis.  While the immune system is fighting the allergens, mast cells release these histamines. Histamines are irritating and create itching, swelling and leaking fluid from cells. “The immediate reaction is reflected in the skin as erythema, edema, and itch; in the upper airways as sneezing, rhinorrhea, and mucous secretion; in the lungs as cough, bronchospasm, edema, and mucous secretion, and in the gastrointestinal tract as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cramping”( Prussin, 2003), (Metcalfe, 2009). These allergic chemicals can cause muscle spasm and lead to throat tightening and loss of voice. 

Histamines are mediators released to allow blood fluids to enter the areas where they are needed with more ease by increasingly the permeability of the site where they are, causing swelling. There are several thoughts as to what histamines do in a cell, although none have been proven. Examples are that histamines regulate adrenaline in the body, and another is that histamines are the normal stimulus for gastric juice, as shown by the high concentration of histamine in the stomach. This is shown in any swelling as a response to an allergic reaction. This can create a problem, however, as histamines constrict smooth muscles. This includes those in the lungs, which can create wheezing and coughing, and asthma attacks, if applicable.

Immunoglobulin E is an antibody only found in mammals.  IgE levels in the body are based on a number of factors, including age, genetic predisposition, ethnicity, immune status, season of the year, and some diseases. For example, those with pollen allergies have increased IgE levels further into the pollen season due to increased levels of pollen, and therefore the body’s increased need to defend itself. As the pollen season ends and pollen levels decrease, IgE levels also decrease. The same is said for any allergen that the body is exposed to. The more that the body is exposed to these allergens, the more IgE that the body produces.

The release of histamines into the bloodstream can create something known as anaphylaxis. Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction characteristic of fainting, light-headedness, dizziness, and difficulty breathing, along with other symptoms. Anaphylaxis is often caused by bee stings, food allergies and drug allergies in allergic individuals. Anaphylaxis can be life threatening, especially if treatment is not found soon after starting.

Knowing about allergies is important, as it helps us to better understand what is happening when we have a reaction to some foreign object. Allergic reactions are not actually caused by the allergen itself, but by your body’s response to the allergen.

Sources

Metcalfe, Dean D., MD, Alasdair M. Gilfillan, PhD, and Richard D. Peavy, PhD. 
     ”Mechanisms of mast cell signaling in anaphylaxis.” The Journal of Allergy 
     and Clinical Immunology 124.4 (2009): 639-646. PubMed. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. 
     <http://www.jacionline.org/

Prussin, Calman, MD, and Dean D. Metcalfe, MD. “IgE, mast cells, basophils, and 
     eosinophils.” The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 111.2 (2003): 
     486-494. PubMed. Web. 10 Dec. 2009. <http://www.jacionline.org/

Susan J.  P7 1/28/10 

Schizophrenia can be characterized as a mental disorder associated with the abnormalities in perception or expression of one’s reality. This disease most commonly manifests symptoms in humans which include auditory hallucinations, paranoia, bizarre delusions, or disorganized speaking or thinking with significant social or occupational dysfunction. Considering the complexity of the disease, identifying the causes and diagnosis is an intricate process. 

There is no laboratory test for schizophrenia due to the fact that the symptoms vary over a widespread spectrum. Since there is no medical procedure to determine the diagnosis, it is derived from a series of clinical examinations. Medics look to the etiology and pathology of the disease to trace back and discover the determinants. The analysis of the disorder consists of constinuents from family history or heredity, environmental factors, emotional history, and current symptoms. 

It has recently been confirmed that heredity and an individual’s family background can be targeted as a cause of an outbreak of schizophrenia. Susceptibility to the disorder is increased among relatives of known patients rather than in the general population. Although the theories are not confirmed, evidence from studies of adoptions and twins proves that genetics can heighten the risk. This risk escalates as the number of affected family members increases, nearly 50% when both parents have been diagnosed (Mueser, 2004). A connection between affected relatives is often identified as the most significant factor leading to a diagnosis. 

A combination of both biological and psychosocial components creates another cause of schizophrenia used by medical professionals to identify the disorder. Development of schizophrenia can be linked to prenatal exposures such as malnutrition, infection, depression, influenza, as well as use of nicotine or cannabis during pregnancy (Gilmore, 2010). This is due to the fact that obstetric complications lead to abnormal brain development. Socio-demographic factors have pinpointed birthplace, poverty level, and race to be directed correlated with the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Lower social classes are likely to live at a lower standard of living, providing an emotionally stressful lifestyle and contributing to the development of the disorder. Increased risk has been evident within minority races, for instance, Afro-caribbean people living in the UK, Surinamese immigrants in Holland, and African Americans (Mueser, 2004). 

Mental scarring in the emotional history of some patients has been suggested as another contributor to identifying schizophrenia. Events in which patients experience extreme depression, stress, fear, or pressure may result in mental disorders such as schizophrenia. For example, psychiatric patients who were subject to child or sexual abuse during childhood have conveyed earlier recessions such as increasing hospitalizations, seclusion, and more severe symptoms (Castillo, 2006). One’s amount of received nurture, childhood experiences, or emotion-triggering events has proved to have a lasting effect on an individual as well as the diagnosis of schizophrenia. 

Lastly, a diagnosis is created by studying and analyzing the symptoms of a patient. Symptoms of schizophrenia can be characterized into three different categories, psychotic, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Psychotic symptoms can be defined as misconception of reality, false beliefs or delusions, hallucinations, and bizarre behaviors. A patient may experience such thoughts through auditory, visual, or tactile behaviors, in which auditory is most common. Negative symptoms are one’s recession from society through emotions or behavior. This consists of stoic acts such as monotonous voice, apathy, and a lack of pleasure. Finally, cognitive impairment contains lack of concentration or focus, learning or memory disabilities, and executive functions such as abstract thoughts (Mueser, 2004). 

A diagnosis of schizophrenia can be developed using the analysis of a variety of risk factors. The heredity or family history, environmental constituents, emotional history, as well as physical symptoms make up what professionals use to identify the disorder in patients. It is essential to understand the definition and causes of schizophrenia because of its clear existence in society, and how and why it could shape one’s lifestyle. 

Bibliography:

Mueser, Kim T. “Schizophrenia.” The Lancet 363.9426 (2004): 2063-73. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 14 Dec. 2009. 

Gilmore, John H. “Understanding What Causes Schizophrenia: A Developmental
Perspective.” American Journal of Psychiatry 167.1 (2010): 8-11.
ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 12 Jan. 2010. 

Castillo, Richard J.  “Schizophrenia, Culture, and Subjectivity: The Edge of Experience/Models of Madness: Psychological, Social and Biological Approaches to Schizophrenia”. American Anthropologist  108.1 (2006): 229-230. ProQuest Science Journals, ProQuest. Web.  12 Jan. 2010.

Julia H. P 9  1/28/10

 Although most traumatic events occur within a short period of time, the psychological effects that they can have can last a lifetime if the correct treatments for the particular illness are not sought. Post-traumatic event-related illnesses can be mild at times, although when they go untreated and ignored, they can progress to make everyday life unbearable. Traumatic incidences experienced by humans manifest themselves in many different ways, including Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Traumatic Dissociative Amnesia, and Phantom Limb Syndrome. 

There are certain treatments being researched that can relieve people suffering from these illnesses of their struggles in daily life, but not all of them work as permanent solutions. As psychiatric medicine develops, more and more treatments for these kinds of illnesses are becoming available to the public, as opposed to just test subjects. Many people who would not previously have been able to relieve the pain and mental suffering caused by their particular illness are now able to find many treatments that cater specifically to the type of post-traumatic mental illness that person has developed. 

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (or PTSD) is one of the most common psychological effects of a traumatic experience. People with this illness are tragically subject to reliving their traumatic experience over and over, often when the particular memory of the traumatic experience is triggered by an outside source. Many people who suffer from this illness are survivors of terrible car crashes or war veterans, who in any instance in which an image of their previous bad experience floats into their head, will immediately seize up and begin to relive that experience. They view the scene just as it was when it happened, their heart will begin to pound vigorously, and they sweat profusely. This imagination of the actual event feels just as real as the event itself to the victims of this illness, as if it was “something that was happening at that very moment”. (McGowan 2009).However, many people who experience traumatic events never get PTSD. But for those who do, the event creates a memory that sticks fast into the conscious, and is able to at any time appear into their heads over and over again. (McGowan 2009). PTSD can be characterized as a disorder of memory, or a disorder that directly affects the way that people think about experiences that they have had. These memories do not easily fade away, but rather return to haunt the victim again and again, as crystal clear as the first moment the event was experienced. Research looking into cures for this disorder is still in its infancy thus far, but the treatments that have been recently uncovered have shown to make a larger effect on erasing the disorder entirely than those used before them. The most effective experimental treatment out there today involves not erasing the bad memory at first, but rather reliving it. Patients are given a low dose of a common blood pressure medicine, Propranolol, which reduces activity in the portion of the brain that deals with emotions. Then, the patient listens to a re-creation of their traumatic even on a tape, for example if it was a car crash, sounds representing an actual car crash are played to stimulate the memory. The use of Propranolol breaks the link between the factual memory and the emotional memory. The body’s adrenaline is slowed by the drug, and the patient will not react negatively to the event being played for them because of this. The memory remains in the patients head, but the way in which they remember the memory changes: they remember only the facts, but the terror that usually accompanies this memory leaves. This scientific breakthrough not only managed to help people re-experience their pasts to change the way they thought about them, but also managed to prove that humans can alter their memories just by remembering them differently. 

Stress from traumatic events, besides being able to manifest itself negatively in the memories, is also able to hide itself entirely, through Traumatic Dissociative Amnesia. Traumatic Dissociative Amnesia is a mental illness that is quite the opposite of PTSD, in the way that instead of reliving the event constantly, the victim of this disorder forgets the event completely. An interesting possible trait of this illness is that it perhaps “exists as a natural capacity of the brain” (McNally 2007). Much study is going into figuring out whether or not the brain, in the interest of protecting itself from further harm, shuts down certain memories that would cause stress to the person that has experienced a traumatic event. Many people who suffer from this illness are people who also suffered from childhood sexual abuse, and in studies are more likely to be traumatized by their memories when they do remember than people with other types of traumatic memories. Treatments of this illness include intense psychotherapy (McNally 2007), although one controversial argument about this illness is whether or not remembering actually helps the victim. If the brain has suppressed a memory for protection in the first place, bringing it back could possibly cause further psychological stress on the victim. No form of traumatic memory ever truly leaves a person (McNally 2007), and people who suffer from this illness tend to experience more trauma in eventually remembering their memory than they would have if they had remembered it in the first place.

Traumatic experiences, as much as they mostly manifest themselves in purely psychological ways, can also affect people in physical ways with psychological connections. People who experience Phantom Limbs have one such an illness. A Phantom Limb is a condition where someone who has had a limb amputated, or is missing a limb in general, feels as if the limb is still attached and is moving as per usual with the other body parts. Phantom Limbs have been found to be experienced by many people who have had to have their limbs amputated after war-related incidents, and the sensations experienced in these Phantom Limbs are primarily painful ones. This pain ranges from minor twitches of the stump of their limb to excruciatingly agonizing pain with which the patient is bothered for hours, and possibly days at a time. People who suffer from Phantom Limb pains may also suffer from PTSD from the event causing their amputation. Many experimental treatments have been tried to cure this illness directly, and some of the results of these treatments are rather inexplicable. The use of x-rays on the site of the phantom limb for some strange reason seemed to decrease the amount of pain the victim of the phantom limb pain felt after each separate treatment of the limb with x-rays. This treatment seemed to be most effective after five months of use (Casale 2009), as the pain was tolerable in day-to-day life by the patient after this extended amount of x-ray use on their invisible “limb”. Another type of treatment, one which is perhaps more mild in nature, is giving the patient drugs such as anti-depressants. The use of pain medication has been found to be fairly ineffective, as much of the disease is mental rather than physical. As it is a mental illness, a treatment using a mirror box was developed to trick the brain into thinking both limbs are working. This treatment worked by allowing the patient to view themselves so that one side of their body was reflected symmetrically, and it appeared as if they had two working limbs which they could move. This treatment leads to brilliant long-term results, and nearly always eliminates phantom limb-related pains. 

Though physical illness seems as if it would follow someone for longer than a mental one, it can be quite the opposite. The recurrent effects of PTSD haunt many people to the point where they are unable to complete normal everyday activities without being affected in some way by flashbacks. Victims of Traumatic Dissociative Amnesia, instead of being affected on a daily basis, forget their terrible experience entirely, and only through intense therapy are they able to remember it, if they so choose. People suffering from Phantom Limb Syndrome remember their experience constantly, as it pains them in the form of a limb that is not actually present. Although there are many ways being tested currently to combat these illnesses, there is still a long way to go. There are many other ways in which traumatic experiences manifest themselves in humans, and if there is any hope for finding definite methods of curing these illnesses of the mind, much more work needs to be put into this area of study than has already been done. 

Works Cited: 

Casale, R, et al. “Phantom limb related phenomena and their rehabilitation after
     lower limb amputation.” Minerva Medica (Feb. 2009): n. pag. Web. 23 Dec.
     2009. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez. 

McGowan, Kathleen. “Out of the Past.” Discover Magazine 2009: 30-37. Print.

 McNally, Richard J, and William James Hall. “Dispelling Confusion About
     Traumatic Dissociative Amnesia.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 82.9 (2007): n.
     pag. Web. 23 Dec. 2009. <http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/content/82/
     9/1083.long>.

Kaitlyn H. P7 1/28/10

Most diets consist of withholding from palatable food (foods high in fat in sugar), then losing the will and binging on those tasty forbidden foods. This diet technique is not only an ineffective way of achieving results but also unhealthy. Changing eating habits so drastically activates the brains stress system, which can have serious health affects and actually send your diet tumbling down hill.

 Diets have been extensively tested on rats. One study shows that rats cycled between palatable food, and healthier options, began to overindulge on the palatable food. They showed symptoms similar to those of patients going through withdraw linked with drug addiction. The problem only becomes worse, the more dieters relapse back to their “forbidden” foods the more likely they are to do it again, and again (Cottrone 2009).

To further look at how the involvement of the brains stress system is affected by these situations the level of corticotrophin-releasing factor (a stress related chemical in the body) was measured, in the central amygdala, an area of the brain responsible for fear, anxiety, and stress response. Research showed that the rats on the cycled diet, being fed the healthy chow showed five times the amount of corticotrophin-releasing factor than the rats being fed a consistent diet. These levels did not decrease to normal until the cycled rats were fed the unhealthy chow. The findings show that the increased level of stress in the rats was due to the withdrawal from the unhealthy chow (Cottrone 2009).

Unfortunately the factor that triggers the brain to react this way to change in diet is yet to be discovered (Pierroz 2002). However the affects of this stress are very serious. The stress created by these “yo-yo” diets continues on, creating serious health problems. Eating sweet food alters the brain’s stress system, leaving it unable to distinguish between stressful situations. This means that the dieters will feel stressed even if they aren’t in a stressful situation. This creates a fierce cycle because stress leads to overeating and a decrease in muscle mass. When your brain senses stress it assumes that you are in physical danger and instructs cells to release potent hormones. Your body uses stored energy, creating a burst of adrenaline so that the body can flight or flee in order to protect itself. In most cases people will not use this burst of adrenaline in calorie burning activates however the body automatically sends a burst of cortisol out with the adrenaline. The cortisol tricks your brain into believing you need more food, since it is your body’s way of replenishing for the extra burst of adrenaline. During the stressful period people are most likely to grab salty, high fat foods because they stimulate the brain to release pleasure chemicals that reduce anxiety. This process doesn’t end. The body keeps pumping cortisol until the source of stress is gone. Again preparing the body for these “flight of fight” situations cortisol tells the body to store fat which can raise cholesterol and insulin levels, raising the risks of heart disease and diabetes. (Kalish 2009).

No matter how much drive a dieter has, a “yo-yo” diet is going to end tumbling downwards, possibly leaving the dieter worse off than when they started. Eating an inconsistent diet will not only leave dieters with no results, it will also cause serious lifelong health problems.

Works Cited:

Cottrone, Pietro, and Valentina Sabino. “CRF system recruitment mediates dark side of compulsive eating.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (Nov. 09). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (n.d.). Web. 19 Jan. 2010. <http://www.pnas.org/>.

Kalish, Nancy. “7 was to Beat Stress Fat.” Emmaus 61.4 (2009): 56. ProQuest Science Journals. Web. 19 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com>.

Pierroz, Dominique D, Mary Ziotopoulou, and Linda Ungsuanan. “Effects of acute and chronic administration of the melanocortin agonist MTII in mice with diet-induced obesity.”  American Diabetes Association 51.5 (2002): 1337. ProQuest 5000 International. Web. 19 Jan. 2010. <http://proquest.umi.com/